Mapping of medical schools: the distribution of undergraduate courses and annual vacancies in Brazilian cities in 2020 / Cartografia das escolas médicas: a distribuição de cursos e vagas nos municípios brasileiros em 2020

Abstract: Introduction: The number of medical schools in Brazil, as well as the number of vacancies offered at these schools, has grown considerably in the last few years. Since 2013, this increasehas aimedat reaching especially the rural and underserved areas of the country. Objective: Considering that there are many different interests concerning this debate and that this reality directly influences the education and health policies of the country, the aim of this study was to evaluate the number and the distribution of the medical courses,as well as vacancies in these schools in 2020, presenting an updated overview of the Brazilian medical schools. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study, based on data gathered from the Brazilian Ministry ofEducation and Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE) website. The utilized variables were the number of courses, number of vacancies offered in each course, characteristics of the cities where the medical schools are located, such as population size, Human Development Index (HDI) and distance to the capital city of each state. Results: Among the institutions that have already initiated their activities, there are 328 active courses, offering 35.480 vacancies for Medical School applicants. There is a difference when analyzing public or private institutions and paid or tuition-free institutions. There is a greater offer of paid courses (74,1%) and of courses located in the countryside (69,8%). Among the courses in the countryside, 27,8% of the vacancies are offered within 100 km of the capital city. Only 7,9% of the annual vacancies are offered in cities with a medium HDI, and the remainder are offered in cities with high or very high HDI. The increase in HDI is related to the higher proportion of private courses offering medical vacancies. It was observed that there is no correspondence between the absolute number of vacancies and the population of the North region, differentfrom what occurs in the other regions of the country. Conclusions: Medical training is under many influences, such as economic and political trends. This discussion needs to consider the regionalization and democratization of access. It was observed that public institutions tend to be located in municipalities that are farther away from the capitals. Even though there is now greater homogeneity between the regions, the Southeast still concentrates almost half of the vacancies in medical courses. Also, the increase in the number of vacancies in private courses brings up the reflection about the socioeconomic profile of medical students who have the opportunity to gain access to this level of education.

Resumo: Introdução: O número de cursos de Medicina no Brasil e a quantidade de vagas ofertadas cresceram consideravelmente nos últimos anos. A partir de 2013, essa expansão tinha o objetivo de atingir sobretudo o interior do país. Objetivo: Considerando que existem diversos interesses em torno dessa expansão e que essa realidade influencia diretamente as políticas de educação e saúde do país, o objetivo deste estudo foi analisar a quantidade e a distribuição, em 2020, desses cursos e vagas nos municípios brasileiros. Método: Trata-se de estudo transversal com dados disponibilizados pelo Ministério da Educação e pelo Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatística (IBGE). As variáveis estudadas foram números de cursos, número de vagas e características dos municípios das escolas médicas, como tamanho da população, Índice de Desenvolvimento Humano (IDH) e distância em relação à capital do respectivo estado. Resultados: Há 328 cursos em atividade que ofertam 35.480 vagas para ingressantes em Medicina. Ocorre diferença quando se analisam instituições públicas ou privadas e instituições gratuitas ou pagas. Há maior oferta de vagas em cursos pagos (74,1%) e em municípios de interior (69,8%). No interior, 27,8% das vagas são ofertadas por municípios distantes de um a 100 km da capital. A menor parte das vagas (7,9%) é ofertada em municípios de IDH médio, sendo o restante em municípios de IDH alto ou muito alto. O aumento do IDH está relacionado à maior proporção de cursos privados ofertando vagas de Medicina. Observou-se que não há correspondência entre o número absoluto de vagas e a população da Região Norte, o que ocorre nas demais regiões do país. Conclusões: A formação médica está sob várias influências, a exemplo das tendências econômicas e políticas. Essa discussão precisa levar em consideração a regionalização e a democratização do acesso. Observou-se tendência de as instituições públicas se destinarem a municípios mais distantes. Apesar de maior homogeneidade entre as regiões, a Região Sudeste ainda concentra quase metade das vagas. Além disso, o aumento do número de vagas em cursos privados evoca o questionamento sobre o perfil de estudantes que têm a oportunidade de acessar essa graduação.

Education in the Mais Médicos program: the gap between proposals and implementation / A dimensão da formação no Programa Mais Médicos: hiato entre propostas e implementação

Abstract: Introduction: The scarcity and inequalities in the geographical distribution of physicians challenge the consolidation of the right to health and create migratory flows that increase health inequities. Due to their complex and multidimensional characteristics, they demand multisectoral political approaches, considering several factors related to the availability and area of ​​practice of medical doctors, as well as the social vulnerability of local populations. Objective: This study aimed at analysing results of the "Mais Médicos" (More Doctors) Program Educational Axis in Brazil. Methodology: A documental research was conducted, highlighting the location and the public or private nature of new undergraduate medical school vacancies between the years 2013 until 2017, which were then compared to the goals and strategies outlined in the official Program documents. Results: The Educational Axis reached important milestones despite the resistance of some institutional actors. The Program extended its undergraduate vacancies by 7696 places, 22.48% of that in public institutions and 77.52% in private ones. Vacancy distribution prioritized cities in rural areas of Brazil, at the same instance bringing forward significant regulatory changes for undergraduate medical courses. However, political disputes with representatives of medical societies and stakeholders interested in favouring the private educational and healthcare sectors surface in the official discourses and documents. These factors weakened the program normative body, creating a hiatus between its core objectives and respective implementation. Evidence related to the concentration of vacancies in the Southeast regions allow the maintenance of a known unequal workforce distribution, despite a proportionally bigger increase in the Midwest, North and Northeast regions. Conclusion: The predominance of vacancies in private institutions and the weakening of the new undergraduate courses monitoring instruments can compromise changes in the graduate students' profiles, which are necessary for the fixation of physicians in strategic geographic areas to promote Primary Healthcare.

Resumo: Introdução: A carência e as desigualdades na distribuição geográfica de médicos desafiam a consolidação do direito à saúde e criam fluxos migratórios que acirram iniquidades em saúde. Devido ao seu caráter complexo e multidimensional, demandam abordagens políticas multissetoriais, considerando vários fatores relativos à disponibilidade e à área de atuação de médicos, bem como à vulnerabilidade social das populações consideradas. Objetivo: Este estudo teve como objetivo analisar os resultados do eixo Formação do Programa Mais Médicos no Brasil. Métodos: Realizou-se uma pesquisa documental, especificamente relativa à localização e à natureza pública ou privada das novas vagas de graduação em Medicina, no período de 2013 a 2017, em que se confrontaram os resultados obtidos com as metas e estratégias pactuadas nos documentos oficiais do programa. Resultados: O eixo Formação alcançou resultados importantes, apesar da resistência de alguns atores institucionais. O programa expandiu em 7.696 vagas de graduação, sendo 22,48% em instituições públicas e 77,52% em instituições privadas. A distribuição das novas vagas priorizou cidades do interior do Brasil e aprovou mudanças regulatórias importantes para os cursos de Medicina. No entanto, as disputas políticas com atores sociais representativos da classe médica e aqueles interessados no favorecimento do setor privado na educação e assistência à saúde ficaram expressas nos discursos e documentos oficiais. Tais aspectos fragilizaram o corpo normativo do programa e criaram um hiato entre os seus objetivos e a implementação. Evidências referentes à concentração de vagas no Sudeste do país favorecem a manutenção das desigualdades, a despeito de um crescimento proporcionalmente maior nas Regiões Centro-Oeste, Nordeste e Norte. Conclusão: A prevalência de vagas em instituições privadas e a fragilização de instrumentos de monitoramento dos novos cursos podem comprometer a mudança no perfil dos egressos, necessária para a fixação de médicos em áreas estratégicas e na atenção primária à saúde.

Medical schools in India: pattern of establishment and impact on public health - a Geographic Information System (GIS) based exploratory study.

BACKGROUND: Indian medical education system is on the brink of a massive reform. The government of India has recently passed the National Medical Commission Bill (NMC Bill). It seeks to eliminate the existing shortage and maldistribution of health professionals in India. It also encourages establishment of medical schools in underserved areas. Hence this study explores the geographic distribution of medical schools in India to identify such under and over served areas. Special emphasis has been given to the mapping of new medical schools opened in the last decade to identify the ongoing pattern of expansion of medical education sector in India. METHODS: All medical schools retrieved from the online database of Medical Council of India were plotted on the map of India using geographic information system. Their pattern of establishment was identified. Medical school density was calculated to analyse the effect of medical school distribution on health care indicators. RESULTS: Presence of medical schools had a positive influence on the public health profile. But medical schools were not evenly distributed in the country. The national average medical school density in India amounted to 4.08 per 10 million population. Medical school density of provinces revealed a wide range from 0 (Nagaland, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu and Lakshadweep) to 72.12 (Puducherry). Medical schools were seen to be clustered in the vicinity of major cities as well as provincial capitals. Distance matrix revealed that the median distance of a new medical school from its nearest old medical school was just 22.81 Km with an IQR of 6.29 to 56.86 Km. CONCLUSIONS: This study revealed the mal-distribution of medical schools in India. The problem is further compounded by selective opening of new medical schools within the catchment area of already established medical schools. Considering that medical schools showed a positive influence on public health, further research is needed to guide formulation of rules for medical school establishment in India.

Cultural practices of the Zulu ethnic group on the body and their influence on body donation.

Cultural practices in the African continent have been thought to impact negatively on body donation. Thus, most African countries continue to rely on unclaimed bodies for dissection programs, or bequests from the white population. The latter situation is dominant in South African medical schools. Since South Africa is multi-cultural with nine main ethnic groups of the Black African population, it is important to seek the reasons behind lack of participation in body donation. This report represents a move in this direction with its qualitative study of the cultural practices of the Zulu ethnic group in the province of KwaZulu-Natal from the perspective of a variety of participants, with emphasis on their treatment of the human body after death. Four themes emerged from interviews: (1) Death is not the end; (2) Effect of belief in ancestors; (3) Significance of rituals and customs carried out on human tissue; and (4) Burial as the only method of body disposal. Each of these themes is discussed in relation to the likelihood of body donation being seen by Zulus as an acceptable practice. It is concluded that this is unlikely, on account of the need to preserve the linkage between the physical human body and the spirit of the deceased person, and the perceived ongoing relationship between the spirit of the dead and the living. In view of these conclusions, a number of options are canvassed about the manner in which anatomists in KwaZulu-Natal might obtain bodies for dissection. These possibilities have implications for anatomists working in comparable cultural contexts.

The Development of New MD-Granting Medical Schools in the United States in the 21st Century.

No new MD-granting medical schools were established during the 1980s and 1990s due to concerns that existed within the academic and policymaking communities that the United States was going to experience a major oversupply of physicians in the coming decades due to the increase that had occurred in medical school enrollment in the 1960s and 1970s. However, the results of studies conducted in the 1990s suggested that the country was actually going to experience a major shortage of physicians in the coming decades. As a result, new medical schools began to be established in the country after the turn of the 21st century. Since then, 29 new MD-granting medical schools have been established in the United States. This Invited Commentary examines some of the characteristics of the new schools and provides an overview of various factors that contributed to their development, including financial resources and geographic location.

Mexican ENARM: performance comparison of public vs. private medical schools, geographic and socioeconomic regions.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to compare the performance in the National Assessment for Applicants for Medical Resi- dency (ENARM in spanish) of private versus public medical schools, geographic regions and socioeconomic levels by using three different statistical methods (summary measurements, the rate of change and the area under the receiver operator characteristics [AUROC]). These methods have not been previously used for the ENARM; however, some variations of the summary measurements have been reported in some USA assessments of medical school graduates. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cross-sectional study based on historical data (2001-2017). We use summary measures and colourfilled map. The statistical analysis included Mann-Whitney U, Kruskal-Wallis, Spearman correlation coefficient (Rs), and linear regression. RESULTS: A total of 113 medical schools were included in our analysis; 60 were public and 53 private. We found difference in the median of total scores for type of schools, MD= 54.07 vs. MD= 57.36, p= 0.011. There were also significant differences among geographic and socioeconomic regions (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Differences exist in the total scores and percentage of selected test-takers between type of schools, geographic and socioeconomic regions. Higher scores are prevalent in the Northeast and Norwest regions. Additional research is required to identify factors that contribute to these differences. Unsuspected differences in examination scores can be unveiled using summary measures.

OBJETIVO: Comparar el desempeño en el Examen Nacional de Aspirantes a Residencias Médicas (ENARM) de escuelas de medicina privadas y públicas, regiones geográficas y niveles socioeconómicos mediante el uso de tres métodos estadísti- cos diferentes (medidas de resumen, tasa de cambio y el área bajo las características del operador receptor [AUROC en inglés]). Estos métodos no han sido utilizados previamente para el ENARM; sin embargo, se han informado algunas variaciones de las mediciones de resumen en algunas evaluaciones de graduados de medicina de Estados Unidos. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Estudio transversal basado en datos históricos (2001-2017). Se usaron medidas de resumen y un mapa lleno de color. El análisis estadístico incluyó Mann Whitney U, Kruskal-Wallis y coeficiente de correlación de Spearman (Rs). RESULTADOS: Se incluyeron 113 escuelas de medicina en el análisis; 60 eran públicas y 53 privadas. Se encontraron diferencias en la mediana de las puntuaciones totales para el tipo de escuelas, MD= 54.07 vs. MD= 57.36, p= 0.011. También hubo diferencias significativas entre las regiones geográficas y socioeconómicas (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONES: Existen diferencias en los puntajes totales y el porcentaje de examinados seleccionados entre el tipo de escuelas, regiones geográficas y socioeconómicas. Las puntuaciones más altas prevalecen en las regiones noreste y noroeste. Se requieren investigaciones adicionales para identificar los factores que contribuyen a estas diferencias. Las diferencias insospechadas en los puntajes de los exámenes se pueden revelar usando medidas de resumen.

Mexican ENARM: performance comparison of public vs. private medical schools, geographic and socioeconomic regions / ENARM: comparación del desempeño de escuelas de medicina públicas y privadas, regiones geográficas y socioeconómicas

Abstract: Objectives: This study aimed to compare the performance in the National Assessment for Applicants for Medical Residency (ENARM in spanish) of private versus public medical schools, geographic regions and socioeconomic levels by using three different statistical methods (summary measurements, the rate of change and the area under the receiver operator characteristics [AUROC]). These methods have not been previously used for the ENARM; however, some variations of the summary measurements have been reported in some USA assessments of medical school graduates. Materials and methods: Cross-sectional study based on historical data (2001-2017). We use summary measures and colour-filled map. The statistical analysis included Mann-Whitney U, Kruskal-Wallis, Spearman correlation coefficient (Rs), and linear regression. Results: A total of 113 medical schools were included in our analysis; 60 were public and 53 private. We found difference in the median of total scores for type of schools, MD= 54.07 vs. MD= 57.36,p= 0.011. There were also significant differences among geographic and socioeconomic regions (p<0.05). Conclusions: Differences exist in the total scores and percentage of selected test-takers between type of schools, geographic and socioeconomic regions. Higher scores are prevalent in the Northeast and Norwest regions. Additional research is required to identify factors that contribute to these differences. Unsuspected differences in examination scores can be unveiled using summary measures.

Resumen: Objetivo: Comparar el desempeño en el Examen Nacional de Aspirantes a Residencias Médicas (ENARM) de escuelas de medicina privadas y públicas, regiones geográficas y niveles socioeconómicos mediante el uso de tres métodos estadísticos diferentes (medidas de resumen, tasa de cambio y el área bajo las características del operador receptor [AUROC en inglés]). Estos métodos no han sido utilizados previamente para el ENARM; sin embargo, se han informado algunas variaciones de las mediciones de resumen en algunas evaluaciones de graduados de medicina de Estados Unidos. Material y métodos: Estudio transversal basado en datos históricos (2001-2017). Se usaron medidas de resumen y un mapa lleno de color. El análisis estadístico incluyó Mann Whitney U, Kruskal-Wallis y coeficiente de correlación de Spearman (Rs). Resultados: Se incluyeron 113 escuelas de medicina en el análisis; 60 eran públicas y 53 privadas. Se encontraron diferencias en la mediana de las puntuaciones totales para el tipo de escuelas, MD= 54.07 vs. MD= 57.36,p= 0.011. También hubo diferencias significativas entre las regiones geográficas y socioeconómicas (p<0.05). Conclusiones: Existen diferencias en los puntajes totales y el porcentaje de examinados seleccionados entre el tipo de escuelas, regiones geográficas y socioeconómicas. Las puntuaciones más altas prevalecen en las regiones noreste y noroeste. Se requieren investigaciones adicionales para identificar los factores que contribuyen a estas diferencias. Las diferencias insospechadas en los puntajes de los exámenes se pueden revelar usando medidas de resumen.

A shortage of cadavers: The predicament of regional anatomy education in mainland China.

Both in mainland China and around the world, regional anatomy stands as one of the most important basic science courses in medical school curricula. As such, dissection of human cadavers and use of prosected specimens remains the most essential teaching method in anatomy education. However, medical educators have raised increasing concerns about an ongoing shortage of cadavers for medical use in mainland China, a problem which may seriously limit the future development of human anatomy education. Based on a survey on cadaver usage in anatomy education in mainland China, this study found that the cadaver resources of most given medical schools in mainland China are associated with their geographic location, academic ranking, and local support for body donation policies. Effective measures to alleviate this shortage of cadavers may include future efforts to promote national-level body donation legislation, broader acceptance of body donation among Chinese citizens, and an efficient and humane protocol for body donation. Anat Sci Educ 11: 397-402. © 2018 American Association of Anatomists.

Does Texas Need More Medical Schools?

By 2020, Texas will be opening three new medical schools. Will there be enough residency positions for all the new students?

Medical Schools in Fragile States: Implications for Delivery of Care.

OBJECTIVE: To report on medical schools in fragile states, countries with severe development challenges, and the impact on the workforce for health care delivery. DATA SOURCES: 2007 and 2012 World Bank Harmonized List of Fragile Situations; 1998-2012 WHO Global Health Observatory; 2014 World Directory of Medical Schools. DATA EXTRACTION: Fragile classification established from 2007 and 2012 World Bank status. Population, gross national income, health expenditure, and life expectancy were 2007 figures. Physician density was most recently available from WHO Global Health Observatory (1998-2012), with number of medical schools from 2014 World Directory of Medical Schools. STUDY DESIGN: Regression analyses assessed impact of fragile state status in 2012 on the number of medical schools in 2014. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Fragile states were 1.76 (95 percent CI 1.07-2.45) to 2.37 (95 percent CI 1.44-3.30) times more likely to have fewer than two medical schools than nonfragile states. CONCLUSIONS: Fragile states lack the infrastructure to train sufficient numbers of medical professionals to meet their population health needs.

"We have been forced to move away from home": print news coverage of Canadians studying abroad at Caribbean offshore medical schools.

BACKGROUND: Canadian international medical graduates are Canadian-citizens who have graduated from a medical school outside of Canada or the United States. A growing number of Canadians enroll in medical school abroad, including at Caribbean offshore medical schools. Often, Canadians studying medicine abroad attempt to return to Canada for postgraduate residency training and ultimately to practice. METHODS: The authors conducted a qualitative media analysis to discern the dominant themes and ideologies that frame discussion of offshore medical schools, and the Canadian medical students they graduate, in the Canadian print news. We carried out structured searches on Canadian Newsstand Database for print media related to offshore medical schools. RESULTS: Canadian news articles used two frames to characterize offshore medical schools and the Canadian international medical graduates they train: (1) increased opportunity for medical education for Canadians; and (2) frustration returning to Canada to practice despite domestic physician shortages. CONCLUSION: Frames deployed by the Canadian print media to discuss Caribbean offshore medical schools and Canadians studying abroad define two problems: (1) highly qualified Canadians are unable to access medical school in Canada; and (2) some Canadian international medical graduates are unable to return to Canada to practice medicine. Caribbean offshore medical schools are identified as a solution to the first problem while playing a central role in creating the second problem. These frames do not acknowledge that medical school admissions are a primary means to control the make-up of the Canadian physician workforce and they do not address the nature of Canadian physician shortages.

The rural pipeline to longer-term rural practice: General practitioners and specialists.

BACKGROUND: Rural medical workforce shortage contributes to health disadvantage experienced by rural communities worldwide. This study aimed to determine the regional results of an Australian Government sponsored national program to enhance the Australian rural medical workforce by recruiting rural background students and establishing rural clinical schools (RCS). In particular, we wished to determine predictors of graduates' longer-term rural practice and whether the predictors differ between general practitioners (GPs) and specialists. METHODS: A cross-sectional cohort study, conducted in 2012, of 729 medical graduates of The University of Queensland 2002-2011. The outcome of interest was primary place of graduates' practice categorised as rural for at least 50% of time since graduation ('Longer-term Rural Practice', LTRP) among GPs and medical specialists. The main exposures were rural background (RB) or metropolitan background (MB), and attendance at a metropolitan clinical school (MCS) or the Rural Clinical School for one year (RCS-1) or two years (RCS-2). RESULTS: Independent predictors of LTRP (odds ratio [95% confidence interval]) were RB (2.10 [1.37-3.20]), RCS-1 (2.85 [1.77-4.58]), RCS-2 (5.38 [3.15-9.20]), GP (3.40 [2.13-5.43]), and bonded scholarship (2.11 [1.19-3.76]). Compared to being single, having a metropolitan background partner was a negative predictor (0.34 [0.21-0.57]). The effects of RB and RCS were additive-compared to MB and MCS (Reference group): RB and RCS-1 (6.58[3.32-13.04]), RB and RCS-2 (10.36[4.89-21.93]). Although specialists were less likely than GPs to be in LTRP, the pattern of the effects of rural exposures was similar, although some significant differences in the effects of the duration of RCS attendance, bonded scholarships and partner's background were apparent. CONCLUSIONS: Among both specialists and GPs, rural background and rural clinical school attendance are independent, duration-dependent, and additive, predictors of longer-term rural practice. Metropolitan-based medical schools can enhance both specialist and GP rural medical workforce by enrolling rural background medical students and providing them with long-term rural undergraduate clinical training. Policy settings to achieve optimum rural workforce outcomes may differ between specialists and GPs.